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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIAwNojnyoTxiisj 

AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
E.  W.   HILGARD,   Director 


LUPINS  FOR  GREEN-MANURING 


By  J.  BURTT  DAVY 

Assistant  Botanist 


BULLETIN   124 


BERKELEY 

Ube  "dniversitE  press 

May,  1899 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA, 

AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


INTRODUCTION. 


GREEN -MANURE  CROPS. 

The  Need  for  Green-Manure  Plants. — The  importance  of  returning 
to  the  soil  of  orchards  and  vineyards  an  amount  of  nitrogen  at  least 
equivalent  to  that  removed  by  the  fruit  crop,  and  also  the  humus 
gradually  burnt  out  during  the  dry  season,  in  order  to  maintain 
fertility,  has  caused  the  Experiment  Station  at  Berkeley  to  devote 
much  attention  to  the  testing  of  various  leguminous  plants — plants  of 
the  pea  and  clover  family — recommended  for  this  purpose  in  other 
parts  of  the  world.  While  it  is  comparatively  easy  to  find  plants  that 
will  answer  this  purpose  when  or  where  summer  growth  can  be  allowed, 
as  in  the  case  of  field  crops,  the  selection  of  plants  that  will  grow  in  winter 
so  as  to  permit  of  being  turned  under  before  the  summer's  drought 
renders  such  growth  too  wasteful  of  moisture,  is  a  matter  of  no  little 
difficulty.  The  present  bulletin  is  designed  to  give  the  most  promising 
results  thus  far  obtained,  in  order  to  promote  large-scale  experiments 
by  farmers  during  the  present  and  coming  seasons. 

Plants  other  than  those  of  the  leguminous  order  (clovers,  peas, 
beans,  lupins,  etc.)  are  not  recommended  for  green-manuring,  for  the 
reason  that  they  supply  to  the  soil  only  the  humus,  besides  what 
substances  they  have  taken  from  it  during  their  growth;  while  yet, 
a  leguminous  crop  costs  no  more  than  any  other.  It  is  true  that  in 
the  case  of  all  tap-rooted  plants  the  surface  soil  is  enriched  by  what 
was  taken  from  the  subsoil.  But  as  iu  the  arid  region  the  surface 
soil  is  largely  of  less  importance  than  the  subsoil,  on  account  of  the 
deep  rooting  and  feeding  characteristic  of  plants  in  arid  climates, 
the  advantage  thus  secured  is  greatly  reduced;  as  is  also  that 
of  the  crop  roots  being  afforded  an  opportunity  of  deep-rooting 
by  following  the  course  of  the  tap-roots  of  the  preceding  crops. 
Moreover,  nitrogen  being  the  most  expensive  of  elements  supplied  in 
manures,  the  advantage  of  securing  it  from  the  atmosphere  without 
additional  cost  is  obvious. 

The  legumes  combine  all  the  points  required  of  a  green-manure 
plant — nitrogen-absorption  from  the  air,  deep-rooting,  and,  at  the 
proper  stage  of  growth,  that  succulence  which  is  conducive  to  quick 


decay,  thus  rendering  the  crop-ingredients  available  at  the  earliest 
moment.  Nevertheless,  the  plowing-in  of  other  green  crops  or  weeds, 
when  convenient,  should  not  be  neglected. 

It  should  be  stated  that  the  absorption  of  nitrogen  from  the  air  is 
conditioned  upon  the  formation  of  excrescences  or  tubercles  upon  the 
roots;  these  being  formed  by  the  bacilli  possessing  that  valuable 
faculty.  When  the  soil  is  abundantly  supplied  with  available  nitrogen- 
compounds,  tubercles  may  fail  to  form;  and  such  failure  may  also 
result  from  the  absence  of  the  proper  bacilli,  rendering  necessary  the 
"inoculation  of  the  land." 

Peculiar  Conditions  Require  Peculiar  Plants. — The  peculiarities 
of  the  climatic  and  agronomic  conditions  of  arid  regions  make  it 
largely  impracticable  to  utilize  the  crops  employed  in  humid  regions. 
Our  choice  is  ordinarily  restricted  to  annual  plants,  which  make  a 
good  winter  growth  and  can  be  plowed  under  in  spring  (usually  in 
March ) ,  so  as  to  avoid  the  waste  of  moisture  from  summer  growth ; 
they  must  be  adapted  to  calcareous  soils;  and  must  have  stems  not 
so  woody  as  to  resist  fairly  rapid  decomposition. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  many  of  our  native  California  species 
would  prove  better  adapted  to  these  conditions  than  introduced  plants ; 
but  none  of  the  numerous  species  so  far  tested  for  this  purpose,  have 
given  entirely  satisfactory  results;  they  develop  too  late  in  the  season; 
and  are  not  always  hardy  against  frosts. 

Among  the  various  leguminous  crops  so  far  experimented  with  at 
Berkeley,  Bur  Clover  (Medicago  denticulata) ,  Square-pod  Pea  (Lotus 
tetragonolobus),,  and  Snail  Clover  (Medicago  turbinate/,),  have  given 
the  most  promising  results ;  but  none  of  them  yield  as  heavy  a  crop  as 
could  be  desired,  and  the  two  latter  have  not  been  found  suited  to  all 
our  climatic  conditions. 

For  further  information  on  the  subject  of  green- manuring,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  Report  of  this  Station  for  the  year  1894-95 
under  the  title  of  "Supply  of  Soil  Nitrogen,"  pp.  32  to  35,  and  "Crops 
for  Green-Manuring,"  pp.  118  to  123. 

The  Station  has  sent  for  a  sufficient  supply  of  seeds  of  the  several 
kinds  of  lupins  herein  mentioned,  for  the  distribution  of  small  trial 
packets  early  in  autumn.  But  as  the  success  of  some  of  the  varieties 
mentioned  for  green- manure  purposes  is  already  definitely  ascertained, 
it  is  hoped  that  the  facts  here  given  may  induce  some  enterprising 
seedsmen,  or  private  parties,  to  make  larger  importations  from  France 
and  Germany  for  large-scale  trials,  which  cannot  fail  at  least  to  pay 
expenses,  if  they  do  not  prove  highly  remunerative. 

E.  W.  Hilgard. 


g 

PI 


LUPINS   FOR   GREEN -MANURING. 


By  J.  Burtt  Davy. 


Discovery  of  the  Adaptability  of  Certain  Lupins. — In  cultivating 
in  the  Botanic  Garden  a  collection  of  Mediterranean- Region  lupins  for 
comparative  botanical  study,  it  was  found  that  the  spring-sown  plants 
did  not  have  time  to  reach  maturity  before  the  hot,  rainless  season 
dried  them  up.  It  was  therefore  determined  to  try  fall-sowing,  with 
a  view  to  catching  all  the  moisture  available,  thus  inducing  winter 
growth  and  deep-rooting.  As  a  result  of  this  experiment  it  was  found 
that  whereas  the  spring-sown  plots  were  a  complete  failure,  the  fall- 
sown,  in  accordance  with  Italian  experience  dating  back  to  the  Romans, 
produced  heavy  crops  and  were  so  promising  that  it  was  determined  to 
test  the  species  on  a  more  extensive  scale,  with  a  view  to  the  adoption 
of  the  best  of  them  for  green-manure  crops.  The  results  of  these 
tests  are  outlined  in  the  following  pages. 

Though  the  most  important  use  of  lupins  lies  in  their  adaptability 
for  green-manuring,  they  are  also  grown  extensively  in  Europe  for 
cattle-forage  and  human  food,  and  as  ornamental  plants.    (See  p.  29) 

DETAILS  REGARDING  THE  SEVERAL  SPECIES  OF  LUPINS. 

1.  Lupinus  pilosus,  Linn. — This  species  is  an  annual  and  a 
native  of  the  eastern  Mediterranean  Region  (Grecian  Archipelago, 
Syria,  Palestine,  etc. )  It  is  readily  distinguished  from  all  other  species 
known  to  us  by  its  large,  flattened,  brown,  bean-like  seeds,  nearly  half 
an  inch  broad,  of  which  the  outer  seed-coat  is  roughened  with  minute 
projections;  the  leaves  are  large  and  velvety,  with  broad  leaflets; 
the  flowers  bracted. 

The  typical  wild  form  does  not  appear  to  be  in  cultivation,  but  it 
has  given  rise  to  two  cultural  varieties,  L.  pilosus  caeruleus,  Hort. 
and  L.  pilosus  roseus,  Hort.,  both  of  which  seem,  from  all  available 
information,  to  be  in  cultivation  in  Italy  and  France,  but  probably 
only  to  a  limited  extent,  as  we  find  no  mention  of  them  in  agricul- 
tural literature. 


8 

2.  Large  Blue  Lupin  (Lupinus  pilosus  caeruleus,  Hort.)  Plate  1 — 
Annual,  flowers  large,  dark  blue,  with  a  white  line  down  the  center  of 
the  standard,  which  in  age  changes  to  dark  purple.  The  seeds  are 
heavy,  there  being  only  7(50  to  a  pound  of  Berkeley- grown  seed. 


l  2 

Plate  '2.—  Large  Blue  Lupin. 
1.  At  time  of  first  flowering.  2.  At  time  of  second  flowering. 


Experiments  at  Berkeley. — For  heavy,  calcareous  soils,  this  is 
undoubtedly  the  best  of  the  species  tested;-  it  has  shown  no  sign  of 
root-rot,  although  species  adjacent  on  all  sides  were  affected;  it  is  not 
injured  by  frosts  at  Berkeley,  is  more  succulent  than  the  varieties  of 
L.  angustifolius ,  produces  more  and  larger  foliage,  and  covers  the 
ground  better,  branching  more  freely  from  the  base.  The  size  and 
heaviness  of  the  seed  would  seem  to  be  a  disadvantage,  but  this  is  out- 
weighed by  the  fact  that  owing  to  its  branching  habit,  it  requires  more 
room  in  the  rows,  and  the  same  weight  of  seed  per  acre  will  produce 


one-third  more  manure  than  in  the  case  of  the  Small  White  Lupin;  so 
that  the  former  species  is  in  the  end  the  cheaper  of  the  two.  It 
produces  a  larger  number  of  well-developed  root-tubercles  even  under 
the  very  adverse  conditions  which  caused  an  absence  of  tubercles  in 
all  other  species  except  No.  3  (the  Pink  Lupin). 

Before  branching  it  produces,  very  early  in  the  season,  a  terminal 
flower- spike,  and  in  this  state  is  quite  succulent.  When  the  first 
pods  form,  the  whole  plant  branches  freely,  and  becomes  somewhat 
woody;  these  branches  flower  much  later  than  the  main  stem.  Owing 
to  this  peculiarity  it  may  be  advisable  to  plow  in  the  green-manure  at 
the  beginning  of  February,  or,  if  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  make 
this  impracticable,  then  to  sow  from  two  to  four  weeks  later  in  order 
to  bring  the  period  of  first  flowering  nearer  to  plowing  time,  the 
plants  being  in  the  best  condition  for  quick  decay  when  the  first 
flowers  appear. 

Experiments  at  Pomona. — Mr.  Mills,  foreman  of  the  Southern 
California  Sub-Station  near  Pomona,  reports  that  at  first  this  promised 
to  be  the  best  species  under  observation,  but  that  the  larvee  of  some 
insect  attacked  and  destroyed  a  large  number  of  plants  and  nearly 
killed  the  rest.  The  latter  finally  sent  out  branches  which  came  into 
bloom  when  the  plants  were  about  eighteen  inches  high;  they  were 
again  attacked  by  the  same  insect,  which  destroyed  nearly  all  the 
flower-heads;  the  weight  of  seed  finally  produced  was  little  more  than 
the  amount  originally  sown.  This  species  was  also  damaged  by  the 
frost  of  March  23rd,  1898,  at  7  a.  m.,  when  for  half  an  hour  the 
mercury  stood  at  27°  F.  At  Berkeley  it  was  not  affected  by  the  frost 
of  Feb,  4,  1899,  when  the  thermometer  registered  29.9°  F.,  and  when 
several  other  plants,  including  the  native  Lupinus  affinis,  were  injured. 

3.  Pink  Lupin  (Lupinus  pilosus  roseus,  Hort.)  Plate  3. — An 
annual,  closely  resembling  the  preceding  variety  in  general  habit, 
size,  pubescence,  etc. ;  but  the  color  of  the  flowers  is  pale  pink,  with  a 
white  line  down  the  center  which  in  age  changes  to  magenta.  The 
seeds  are  almost  as  heavy,  there  being  864  to  a  pound  of  Berkeley- 
grown  seed.     (See  Plate  3  on  following  page.) 

Experiments  at  Berkeley. — This  variety  has  the  same  habit  of 
growth  as  the  preceding  and  like  it,  is  not  affected  by  frost  or  root-rot; 
but  the  tests  this  year  indicate  that  in  new  soil,  not  inoculated  with  the 
lupin  bacteria  (see  p.  25,)  it  will  not  always  produce  tubercles  as 
readily  as  the  Large  Blue  Lupin. 

4.  Yellow  Lupin,  (Lupinus  luteus  sativus,  Hort.)  Lupinus  luteus 
of  various  authors;   Lj.   odoratus,  Hort.,  Fragrant  or  Scented  Lupin. 


10 


Plate  3.— Pink  Lupins. 

1.  At  time  of  first  flowering.  2.  Showing  tubercles. 

3.  At  time  of  second  flowering. 


French:   Lupin  jaune,  lupin  odorant.     German:   Gelbe  Lupine. 

Annual,  low-growing  and  much  branched  from  the  base;  stem 
succulent;   flowers  rich  yellow,  very  fragrant. 

The  wild  plant  of  which  this  is  a  cultivated  variety  is  a  native  of 
the  Mediterranean  Region. 

Uses. — The  Yellow  Lupin  has  been  grown  since  1840  as  a  forage 
plant  in  parts  of  Germany  (Saxony,  Silesia,  Pomerania,  Bohemia, 
Moravia  and  Brandenburg)  and  of  France  (Boulogne,  Manche  and 
Bourbonnais.)  It  is  also  said  to  be  grown  in  some  parts  of  England, 
and  in  Norway  as  far  north  as  70°  latitude. 

It  is  the  least  bitter  of  the  cultivated  lupins,  but  animals  are  said 
not  to  care  for  it  in  a  green  state,  and  it  is  usually  made  into  hay. 
At  present,  however,  it  is  extensively  cultivated  as  a  green-manure, 


11 

to  improve  the  poor  sandy  soils  found  in  parts  of  Prussia  and  of 
France ;  for  this  purpose  it  is  considered  the  best  of  all  the  species 
tried  there,  and  will  thrive  even  on  drift- sands  of  the  sea  coast. 
Langethal  observes  that  what  the  Sainfoin  is  for  the  poorest  limestone 
or  marly  soil,  the  Yellow  Lupin  is  for  sandy  land.  As  a  green-manure 
it  is  considered  superior  to  the  Small  Blue  Lupin,  because  the  roots 
penetrate  the  soil  to  a  much  greater  depth,  and  because  rye  is  found  to 
succeed  much  better  after  the  Yellow  than  after  the  Small  Blue  Lupin; 
wherever  possible,  therefore,  the  former  is  grown  in  preference  to  the 
latter;  as  far  as  Europe  is  concerned,  it  is  more  extensively  grown 
than  any  other  species.  Kette  observes  that  this  species  shows  an 
advantage  over  the  others  in  never  being  choked  by  weeds  if  the  soil 
is  at  all  suitable. 

Soils. — Heuze  states  that  it  will  not  succeed  in  impermeable  or 
calcareous  soils,  but  that  it  grows  well  in  deep  sandy,  and  light  and 
ferruginous  soils,  and  forest  lands  which  have  lost  their  acid  character; 
it  is  not  grown  on  clay  soils.  Werner  notes  that  it  does  not  do  as 
well  as  the  Small  Blue  Lupin  on  gravelly  or  marly  soils.  Our  own 
observations  show  that  of  all  the  species  tried  at  Berkeley,  this  is  the 
most  difficult  to  grow  in  heavy,  strongly  calcareous  adobe  soils,  partly 
owing,  doubtless,  to  their  impervious  character;  for  the  seeds  germinate 
readily  and  the  plant  makes  a  good  stand  when  the  soil  has  been 
dressed  with  stable  manure. 

Cultivation  .—In  France  it  is  customary  to  sow  from  70  to  110  lbs. 
of  lupin  seed  to  the  acre.  In  Hanover  the  following  rotation  is  often 
practiced:  With  the  last  hoeing  of  the  potato  crop,  from  the  end  of 
April  to  the  middle  of  May,  lupin  seeds  are  dropped  between  the  rows 
of  potatoes.  In  the  fall  the  potatoes  are  harvested  and  the  lupins 
plowed  under.  Rye  or  winter  wheat  is  then  sown,  sometimes 
immediately  after  plowing,  without  any  bad  results  (Kette) ;  though 
oftener  fourteen  days  are  allowed  to  intervene.  After  the  grain 
harvest,  in  the  following  August,  the  land  is  again  plowed  and 
lupins  are  sown  for  a  winter  crop,  which  is  plowed  under  in  the 
spring  and  is  followed  by  a  crop  of  oats.  When  grown  for  seed  the 
Yellow  Lupin  is  harvested  at  the  end  of  August. 

Experiments  at  Berkeley. — For  three  successive  seasons  this 
species  has  proved  a  failure  in  the  strongly  calcareous  adobe  soil  at 
Berkeley,  except  when  treated  with  stable  manure;  in  which  case, 
however,  though  it  made  a  fine  growth  of  succulent  matter,  scarcely 
any  tubercles  were  produced,  showing  that  the  nitrogen  was  derived 
from  the  soil.  There  is  little  doubt  that  if  sown  early  enough  this 
species  would  prove  very  beneficial  on  our  light,  non-calcareous  soils, 
and  it  should  be  tried  in   the   granitic   and  red  soils  of  the  Sierra 


12 

Nevada  foothills,  and  the  sandy  soils  on  the  plains  at  the  foot  of  the 
Tehachapi  and  the  Sierra  Madre  ranges.  It  has  not  been  affected  by 
frost  or  root-rot.  It  is  much  later  in  time  of  flowering  than  either  of 
the  varieties  of  L.  pitosus  or  of  L.  angustifolius,  not  coming  into  bloom 
till  the  second  week  of  March.  The  table  on  p.  28  shows  the  yield  of 
green  material  to  be  very  poor;  bnt  this  is  due  to  the  fact  that  in  this 
instance  few  seeds  germinated  and  but  very  few  plants  came  to 
maturity,  doubtless  owing  to  the  soil  conditions.  In  manured  soil, 
where  all  the  seeds  germinated  and  the  plants  attained  good  height, 
the  weight  of  green  material  was  much  greater. 

5.  Succulent  Lupin  (Lupinus  affinis,  Agardh). — A  rather  low 
(2  to  2h  feet  high),  much  branched,  succulent  annual;  flowers 
purplish,  seeds  medium-size.  Indigenous  to  California,  growing 
luxuriantly  on  sloping  adobe  or  clay  banks,  from  Marin  County 
southward  to  San  Diego. 

Experiments  at  Berkeley. — We  are  not  aware  that  this  species  has 
been  tried,  either  for  forage  or  for  green-manure,  except  in  Cali- 
fornia, and  with  us  it  has  proved  unreliable  in  germination,  slow  in 
coming  to  maturity,  and  less  resistant  to  frost  than  the  foreign 
species.  Several  plants  were  cut  to  the  ground  in  the  cold  snap  of 
February  4,  1899  (29.9°  Fahr.  at  the  University  observatory,  and 
probably  still  lower  on  the  low  ground),  when  the  European  species 
were  not  affected. 

Lupinus  affinis  ranks  next  to  L.  luteus  in  succulence,  but  does  not 
decompose  as  thoroughly  nor  as  rapidly.  Although  its  germination  is 
unreliable,  yet  under  cultivation  it  shows  a  tendency  to  improve  in 
this  respect.  It  produces  a  heavy  crop  of  seeds.  Under  steady  culti- 
vation this  species  is  likely  to  prove  a  valuable  plant  for  green-manure 
in  frostless  regions;  it  produces  an  abundance  of  tubercles  both  in 
new  soil  and  in  soil  which  has  been  manured.  On  this  account,  and 
because  of  its  heavy  vield  per  acre  and  great  succulence,  it  is  worthy 
of  more  attention. 

6.  Narrow-leaved  Lupin  (Lupinus  angustifolius,  Linn.)  —  In 
modern  Greece  called  "agri  lupouni,"  and  in  Egypt  "termis  el 
Sjaeitan"  (Satan's  Lupin),  possibly  on  account  of  its  habit  of  spring- 
ing up  as  a  weed  among  crops  of  cultivated  lupin,  like  the  tares  of  the 
Scripture  parable. 

Annual,  branching  from  the  base,  about  lj  feet  high;  leaflets 
narrow;  flowers  small,  pale  blue;  seeds  ovoid,  smooth,  mottled  with 
gray  and  white.     Not  in  full  flower  till  the  middle  of  April. 

This  is  the  typical  wild  form,  a  native  of  the  Mediterranean  Region 
of  south  Europe  and  north  Africa,  where  it  occurs  as  a  weed  in  grain- 


13 

fields.  We  first  find  mention  of  it  about  306  B.C.  It  is  supposed  to 
be  the  plant  spoken  of  by  Dioscorides  as  "thermos  agrios,"  and  the 
"lupinoum  agrestum"  of  the  Romans.  It  does  not  appear  to  be  now 
cultivated  for  agricultural  purposes,  but  from  it  have  been  obtained 
the  valuable  varieties  called  respectively  caeruleus  and  diploleuca,  the 
Small  Blue  and  the  Small  White  Lupin. 

Naudin  says  that  sheep  are  pastured  on  it  in  places  where  it  grows 
wild.  It  is  said  to  prefer  sandy,  poor  soils,  and  appears  to  dislike 
excess  of  lime. 

Experiments  at  Berkeley. — During  three  successive  seasons  we  have 
found  Lupinus  angustifolius  much  less  reliable  than  the  two  succeed- 
ing varieties;  it  does  not  germinate  well  in  our  calcareous  soil,  makes 
an  unequal  stand,  and  is  shorter  and  slower  of  growth.  It  branches 
much  more  freely  from  the  base  than  its  varieties,  but  like  them  it 
lacks  the  succulence  of  some  other  species.  It  is  liable  to  infection 
with  root-rot.  The  stems  do  not  decompose  readily:  after  being  plowed 
under  and  remaining  a  month  (from  March  18  to  April  22,  1899),  they 
were  still  long  and  fibrous.  This  species  produces  but  few  tubercles, 
and  is  late  in  flowering. 

7.  Small  Blue  Lupin  (Lupinus  angustifolius  caeruleus,  Korn). 
Plates  4  and  5. — German:  Blaue  Lupine;  French:  Lupin  bleu,  lupin 
a  fleurs  bleus,  petit  lupin  bleu. 

Closely  resembling  L.  angustifolius ,  of  which  it  is  only  a  cultural 
variety,  but  taller  (3  feet),  not  branched  from  the  base,  and  with 
flowers  of  a  brighter  blue.  It  is  in  full  flower  early  in  March.  A 
somewhat  woody- stemmed  variety.  As  to  when  and  where  it  origin- 
ated we  appear  to  have  no  record;  it  is  probably  the  plant  referred 
to  by  Tournefort,  in  1700,  as  "L.  angustifolius  caeruleus  elatior."  It 
was  first  cultivated  in  Germany  for  green-manure  in  1830. 

Uses. — It  is  now  grown  extensively  for  green-manure,  both  in 
Germany  and  France,  especially  about  Bordeaux  (Kette).  According 
to  Cornevin  it  was  more  largely  grown  in  France  in  former  times  than 
at  present,  being  used  for  feeding  sheep;  it  has  been  neglected 
for  this  purpose  of  late  years,  on  account  of  its  poisonous  qualities 
(see  p.  29).  Langethal  considers  that  it  is  of  small  value  as  green 
forage,  on  account  of  the  hardness  of  its  stems,  but  that  the  large 
amount  of  seeds  produced,  which  are  also  fed  to  stock,  renders  it  a 
valuable  crop. 

Soils. — Werner  states  that  on  gravelly  and  marly  soil  the  Small 
Blue  Lupin  gives  better  results  than  the  Yellow  Lupin.  It  is  fairly 
tolerant  of  limy  soils  in  California,  but  less  so  than  the  varieties  of 
L.pilosus.     Langethal  notes  that  it  grows  very  well  on  a  stiff  and  even 


14 

a  clayey  soil  which  is  sufficiently  broken  up  by  repeated  plowing;  in 
this  respect  it  is  superior  to  the  Yellow  Lupin.  Werner  states  that  the 
seeds  of  this  species  lose  the  power  of  germination  more  rapidly  than 
those  of  L.  htteus,  but  they  are  easier  to  collect,  not  falling  out  of  the 
pods  as  readily  as  they  do  in  that  species. 

Experiments  at  Berkeley. — At  first  this  gave  promise  of  being 
the  species  best  adapted  for  green-manuring  in  middle  California;  it 
germinates  readily,  and  makes  an  excellent  stand  in  our  calcareous, 
blackish  adobe  soil,  is  not  affected  by  frost  and  is  a  rapid  and  robust 
grower.  It  does  not,  however,  branch  well  from  the  base,  and  fails 
to  rot  quickly  and  thoroughly  after  ploughing  under.  During  the 
present  season  it  has  been  badly  affected  by  a  root-rot,  which  has  in 
some  rows  destroyed  from  50  to  75  %  of  the  plants,  especially  in  the 
late-sown  plots.  The  effect  of  early  sowing  on  the  yield  of  green 
material  is  admirably  shown  on  plate  1,  the  large  plants  having  been 
sown  at  the  end  of  September,  and  the  smallest  ones,  (photographed 
at  the  same  time  and  on  the  same  plate,)  were  sown  November  17th. 

Chino  Valley.— Mr.  Mills  reports  for  1897-98  that  at  the  Southern 
California  Station  it  came  up  in  good  season  after  planting,  and 
promised  to  make  a  good  growth;  it  was  badly  damaged,  however, 
first  by  hares,  then  by  the  heavy  frosts  of  March  23rd,  and  finally  by 
root-rot.  This  species  early  produces  a  very  long  tap-root  in  the 
Pomona  soil,  as  is  well  shown  on  the  plate.  For  the  season  of  1898-99 
Mr.  Mills  reports  that  although  the  plants  were  frozen  stiff,  clear  to 
the  ground,  by  the  heavy  frost  of  February  6th,  they  showed  no  bad 
effects  after  thawing  out.  He  considers  that  if  the  ravages  of  root-rot 
can  be  successfully  combated  by  treating  the  seed  or  by  any  other 
means,  this  species  will  be  pre-eminently  the  best  for  the  uncertain 
seasons  of  southern  California. 

Sierra  Foothills. — The  Small  Blue  Lupin  appears  to  be  absolutely 
worthless  on  the  granitic  and  red  soils  of  the  Sierra  foothills  at  Jack- 
son, Amador  Co.  With  a  rainfall  of  twenty-six  inches,  plants  raised 
from  seed  sown  October  24th  and  25th,  1898,  had  only  attained  a 
maximum  height  of  eight  inches  by  April  20th,  1899,  at  which  time 
they  were  setting  seed.  Much  the  same  result  is  reported  from  Ana- 
heim, Orange  Co.;  but  in  both  cases  it  may  have  resulted  from  the 
late  sowing. 

8.  Small  White  Lupin  (Lupinus  angustifolius  diploleuca,  Korn.) 
German:  Ostpreussische  weisse  Lupine.  Scarcely  differs  from  the 
var.  caeruleus,  except  in  having  white  flowers  and  white  seeds. 

Kette  states  that  since  1881  this  plant  has  been  increasingly  grown 
in   Germany  for  forage,   as  a  substitute  for  the   Small   Blue   Lupin, 


15 


Plate  4.— Small  Blue  Lupin.     Berkeley 


17 


3 

Plate  5.— Small  Blue  Lupin.     Pomona. 


1.  Sown  November  17.  2.  Sown  September  28. 

3.  Thirty  day  seedling  at  Pomona.  4.  Thirty  day  seedling  at  Pomona  of  L.  pilosus. 


19 

because  the  seed  is  less  injurious  to  cattle  than  that  of  the  latter 
variety. 

In  California  there  is  no  difference  noticeable  as  to  the  growth  of 
the  plant;    it  appears  to  be  equally  susceptible  to  root-rot. 

Southern  California. — Mr.  Mills  reports  as  follows  for  1897-98: 
"  Sown  October  19th,  sprouted  November  1st,  it  came  up  in  good  season 
after  planting,  and  promised  to  make  a  growth  that  surpassed  that  of 
any  other  variety;  but  the  hares  made  a  dead  set  on  it,  and  before  we 
could  get  the  batch  of  invaders  killed  off,  they  had  cut  off  the  central 
stem  of  all  the  plants,  and  they  lost  considerable  valuable  time.  They 
then  sent  out  lateral  shoots,  but  again  lost  considerable  time  when 
they  would  otherwise  have  made  their  best  growth,  for  the  heavy  frost 
on  March  23rd  killed  the  greater  part  of  the  flower-spikes.  It  finally 
matured  seed  when  about  two  feet  high.  It  would  undoubtedly  be 
the  best  of  the  species  tested,  if  given  a  fair  start,  and  with  normal 
conditions  of  weather." 

9.  Large  White  Lupin  {Lupinus  alius,  Linn.) — Lupinus  albus 
vulgaris,  Alefeld.  German,  Weisse,  Diinglupine,  Gewohnliche  weisse 
Lupine.  French,  Lupin  blanc,  pois  lupin,  pois  de  loup,  or  feve  de 
Loup.     Italian,  Lupino,  and  Portuguese,  Tramoso. 

Not  unlike  Lupinus  pilosus  in  habit,  but  the  flowers  are  white, 
without  bracts;  upper  lip  of  calyx  entire;  seeds  smooth,  white. 

The  Large  White  Lupin  is  apparently  a  native  of  Italy  and  Sicily; 
it  also  occurs  in  a  wild  state,  but  perhaps  naturalized,  along  the  eastern 
coast  of  the  Mediterranean  and  as  far  east  as  the  Caucasus. 

History. — It  appears  to  have  been  grown  in  Egypt  at  a  very  remote 
period  of  antiquity.  It  is  considered  to  be  identical  with  the" lupinus" 
of  Cato,  Varro,  Virgil,  Columella,  Pliny  and  Palladius,  and  the 
"loupinoum"  of  Dioscorides.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  cultivated  it  as 
early  as  396  B.C.  for  green-manure,  as  well  as  for  the  seeds.  The 
occurrence  in  Spain  of  four  common  names  for  this  plant,  differing 
according  to  the  province,  indicates,  according  to  De  Candolle,  its  very 
early  cultivation  in  that  country.  In  Germany  it  was  first  cultivated 
in  the  Rhine  provinces,  in  the  16th  century,  for  green-manure  only; 
in  Austria  in  the  17th  century,  and  in  Saxony  in  the  18th  century.  In 
Italy  it  was  being  very  largely  grown  in  the  18th  century. 

In  recent  times  the  Large  White  Lupin  has  been  cultivated  in  Egypt, 
Greece,  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  southern  France  and  Germany.  It  is 
not  much  grown  in  northern  France,  being  subject  to  injury  from 
frost.  In  southern  France  it  can  endure  a  temperature  as  low  as  10° 
C,  (14°  F.)  if  sown  sufficiently  early  in  the  fall;  in  the  north  of 
Europe,  on  account  of  frost,  it  is  not  sown  before  the  middle  of  April, 


20 

does  not  flower  before  the  end  of  August,   and  fails  to  ripen  seed 
(Kette.) 

Uses. — In  some  parts  of  Italy  it  is  used  as  a  mulch  around  the 
olive  trees.  The  French  grow  it  to  improve  the  quality  of  their 
poorest  lands.  In  Germany  it  has  been  considered  a  good  green- 
manure,  as  it  yields  a  large  quantity  of  foliage;  but  latterly  it  appears 
to  have  fallen  into  disuse,  and  to  have  been  superseded  by  the  Small 
White  Lupin. 

Naudin  states  that  in  Spain  and  Portugal  the  Large  White  Lupin 
is  considered  a  good  and  nourishing  forage  plant;  Vesque  considers, 
however,  that  its  foliage  is  too  bitter  to  serve  for  this  purpose.  De 
Candolle  states  that  the  seed  is  good  fodder  for  cattle,  but  in 
Germany  it  has  been  found  that  cattle  dislike  both  leaves  and  seeds. 
In  Portugal,  according  to  von  Mueller,  it  is  highly  esteemed,  under  the 
name  of  Tramoso,  as  a  remedy  against  pernicious  and  obstinate  weeds, 
especially  Sorrel  (Eumex  Acetosella,  Linn.)  on  account  of  its  close 
and  early  growth. 

The  seeds,  boiled  to  deprive  them  of  their  poisonous  properties, 
were  sold  for  human  food  in  the  streets  of  ancient  Rome,  and  were 
also  used  for  food  by  the  ancient  Egyptians  and  Greeks.  They  are 
still  so  used  by  the  inhabitants  of  Andalusia,  Corsica,  Piedmont, 
Spain,  and  Portugal,  according  to  Corneviu. 

Soils. — In  southern  Europe  the  Large  White  Lupin  is  grown 
almost  exclusively  on  sandy  and  siliceous  soils.  In  German}',  von 
Wulffen  cultivated  it  only  on  a  warm  sandy  soil,  and  found  that 
marling  did  not  perceptibly  increase  the  yield.  Dr.  Pabst  found  that 
it  would  make  a  growth,  though  only  small,  on  a  loamy,  sandy  soil, 
which  contained  much  lime  and  magnesia,  and  on  which  the  Yellow 
and  Small  Blue  Lupins  always  failed;  so  that,  though  susceptible  to 
calcic  carbonate,  it  seems  to  be  less  so  than  those  species  (Werner). 

10. — Egyptian  Lupin  (Lupinus  Termis,  Forsk.). — L.  albus  Tenuis 
Alefeld;  L.prolifer,  Desrouss.:  Sicilian,  Roman  or  Neapolitan  Lupin: 
German,  Weisse  Futter-Lupine,  Aegyptische  or  Sicilianische  Lupine, 
Romische  Lupine,  Sprossende  Lupine:  Egyptian,  Tharmos:  Arabic, 
Termis  or  Termus. 

Described  as  very  closely  resembling  L.  albus,  but  taller  and 
branching  from  the  ground;  keel  blue,  darker  at  the  tips;  seeds 
larger,  only  305  to  a  pound  of  German-grown  seed;  flowers  later.  In 
Germany,  it  does  not  ripen  seed  till  October. 

It  is  found  wild  on  some  of  the  islands  of  the  Mediterranean,  was 
cultivated  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  is  still  cultivated  in  Egypt, 
Greece  (Boissier),  Crete  (De  Candolle),  and  Germany  (Kette). 


21 

Uses. — In  Germany  it  is  said  to  yield  a  large  amount  of  green 
forage,  but  the  stem  becomes  woody  towards  autumn.  In  Egypt 
the  seeds  are  eaten,  after  steeping  to  remove  the  bitterness,  and  they 
are  even  exported  to  India  (though  not  cultivated  there)  and  sold  in 
the  bazaars  under  the  name  of  tourmus  (Royle).  We  have  no  record 
of  its  having  been  used  for  green-manuring;  it  may  prove  too  woody 
for  this  purpose. 

Soils. — Kette  observes  that  the  Egyptian  Lupin  is  less  susceptible 
to  lime  than  L.  luteus;  he  considers  that  the  soil  best  adapted  to  it  is 
a  sandy  loam,  or  a  loamy  sand;  a  small  quantity  of  lime  carbonate  in 
the  soil  seems  to  have  a  beneficial  influence  in  shortening  the  period 
of  growth.  He  observes  that  in  uncultivated,  sandy  soil,  where  the 
Yellow  Lupin  attained  a  height  of  2  feet,  the  Egyptian  Lupin  was 
only  6  inches  high;  while  in  cultivated  soil  it  attained  a  height  of  4 
feet,  and  on  manured  loamy  soil  a  height  of  7  feet.  Manure  is  said 
to  cause  a  greater  increase  in  yield  in  the  case  of  the  Egyptian  Lupin 
than  in  the  case  of  the  Small  Blue  or  the  Yellow  Lupin. 

11.  Cruickshanks'  Lupin  (Lupinus  GruicJcshanlsn,  Hook). — 
L.  mutabilis,  Lindley,  not  of  Sweet. 

A  tall,  woody  annual,  native  of  Chile  and  Peru,  and  long  cultivated 
as  an  ornamental  plant;  the  flowers  are  very  handsome,  the  standard 
being  white,  streaked  with  purple  on  the  margins  and  with  a  yellow 
spot  in  the  center;  in  age  the  white  standard  changes  to  purple.  In 
recent  years  it  has  been  grown  for  forage  in  Germany,  and  it  is  said 
that  cattle  prefer  it  to  the  Yellow  Lupin,  especially  if  mixed  with 
clover.  German  writers  state  that  it  needs  a  good  soil  if  side  shoots 
are  to  be  formed,  but  that  if  the  soil  be  too  rich  it  will  not  make  much 
seed. 

At  Berkeley  all  but  two  of  the  seeds  germinated  readily  in  the 
season  of  1897-98,  but  were  killed  by  a  hot  north-east  wind  just  after 
the  cotyledons  appeared  above  ground.  The  two  more  tardy  seedlings 
survived,  however,  and  one  produced  seed  from  which  the  present 
crop  has  been  raised.  This  year  (1898-99)  it  has  made  a  good  growth; 
but  has  not  produced  tubercles,  as  it  was  sown  in  manured  soil. 
Doubtless  it  will  produce  tubercles  in  unmanured  soil,  but  it  does  not 
appear  promising  for  green-manure,  as  the  stems  are  rather  woody . 
Our  plants  made  very  few  side-shoots  below,  though  the  soil  was  rich, 
but  branched  well  from  above.  Another  season's  test  is  necessary 
before  its  value  can  be  ascertained. 

12.  The  Tricolored  Lupin  (I/upinus  tricolor,  Hort.),  of  south 
European  gardens,  has  been  tried  at  Berkeley,  but  without  very  satis- 
factory results  so  far.     It  is  less  tall  and  more  branched  below  than 


22 

the  preceding  species.  The  flowers  are  at  first  very  light-colored,  the 
standard  being  pale  lavender  and  the  wings  pure  white ;  after  a  few 
days  the  color  of  the  standard  gradually  deepens  to  rich  purple,  and 
that  of  the  wings  to  a  lighter  tint  of  the  same. 

VS.  Perennial  Lupin  (Lupinus  perennis,  Linn.) — Perennial; 
rootstocks  creeping;  stem  branching  very  freely,  covering  the  ground; 
flowers  pale  bluish- purple;  seeds  very  small.  Flowering  period,  May 
and  June. 

Native  of  the  eastern  United  States,  from  Canada  to  Florida. 
Cultivated  in  Germany  as  a  forage  plant,  and  found  less  objection- 
able to  cattle  than  the  Yellow  Lupin.  It  requires  a  good  soil,  reten- 
tive of  moisture  and  clayey,  because  the  creeping  rootstocks  draw 
their  moisture  from  the  surface,  not  reaching  down  to  the  subsoil; 
on  this  account  Langethal  considers  that  it  may  prove  a  valuable 
substitute  for  other  leguminous  crops  in  places  where  the  surface  soil 
is  good  but  the  subsoil  poor,  as  in  some  of  the  hilly  parts  of  middle 
Germany.  It  begins  to  grow  early  in  the  spring,  and  according  to 
Langethal  "will  be  4  inches  high  by  the  time  the  apples  are  in  bloom." 
Several  crops  can  be  obtained  in  a  season,  the  first  of  which  is  ready 
early  in  June. 

We  do  not  find  any  record  of  its  having  been  grown  for  green- 
manure;  perhaps  the  creeping  rootstocks  make  it  unsuited  for  this 
purpose,  as  plants  with  this  habit  are  usually  plowed  under  with 
difficulty,  and  pieces  of  the  root  continue  to  grow  long  after  the  time 
when  the  orchard  or  vineyard  should  be  clear  of  weeds,  to  prevent 
undue  loss  of  moisture  by  their  transpiration. 

14.  Hairy  Lupin  (Lupinus  hirsutus,  Linn.)  L.  digitatus,  Forsk. — 
Annual;  reddish-hairy;  flowers  blue;  seeds  somewhat  flattened, 
grayish-brown,  smooth. 

Native  of  the  northern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  from  Spain  to 
Asia  Minor.  Cultivated  extensively  in  Germany  as  an  ornamental 
plant,  it  has  also  been  tried  as  forage,  and  it  is  said  that  the  cattle 
prefer  both  the  green  parts  and  the  seeds  to  either  the  Small  Blue  or 
the  Yellow  Lupin.  It  has  a  disadvantage  in  that  it  does  not  flower 
till  July  (in  Germany),  and  the  seeds  ripen  late.  The  pods  open  too 
easily,  making  it  difficult  to  collect  the  seed.  It  requires  a  good  soil, 
and  apparently  will  not  thrive  on  the  poor  sandy  soils  on  which  the 
Yellow  Lupin  does  so  well. 

Cultivated  Species  of  Less  Importance. — The  Greek  Lupin, 
Jjupinus  Ortecus,  Boiss.,  and  the  Netted-seeded  Lupin,  L.  reticulaius , 
Desv.  (L.  linifolius,  Roth.),  are  also  mentioned  as  being  in  cultiva- 
tion to  a  limited  extent  in  portions  of  southeastern  Europe,  but  we 


23 

have  no  definite  information  about  them,  except  that  the  latter  is  not 
considered  to  possess  any  advantages  over  the  Small  Blue  Lupin. 

California  Species  which  have  proved  unsatisfactory. — The 
following  annual  species  have  also  been  tried  at  Berkeley,  but  without 
success;  they  are  all  natives  of  California:  L.  nanus,  Dougl.;  L. 
poly  carpus,  Greene;  L.  pachylobus,  Greene;  L.  lepfophyllus ,  Benth.; 
L.  truncatus,  Nutt.;  L.  microcarpus,  Sims.;  L.  densiflorus,  Benth.; 
L.  luteolus,  Kellogg. 

Bitter  Melilot  (Melilotus  indica,  All.) — Though  not  by  any 
means  one  of  the  Lupins,  yet  on  account  of  the  importance  of  the 
subject  of  green-manuring  at  the  present  time,  it  has  seemed  best  to 
take  this  opportunity  of  bringing  the  plant  to  the  notice  of  agricul- 
turists. Prof.  A.  J.  McClatchie,  of  the  University  of  Arizona  Experi- 
ment Station,  at  Tucson,  writes  under  date  of  April  27th,  to  the 
effect  that  in  Arizona  this  plant  is  found  to  be  the  most  successful 
green-manure  crop  that  can  be  raised  in  their  orchards.  He  con- 
tinues: "the  conditions  are  somewhat  different  with  us  than  with  you. 
Ordinarily  we  have  plenty  of  irrigating  water  to  grow  anything  we 
choose,  until  as  late  as  April  at  least.  Before  that  time  the  Melilotus 
makes  a  fine  growth.  We  began  plowing  ours  under  about  the  first 
of  April,  the  yield  being  15  to  16  tons  of  green  matter  per  acre,  or 
2 J  to  3  tons  of  dry  matter.  Nothing  else  that  we  have  tried  will 
approach  this  in  yield  during  the  winter." 

Reference  to  table  1  (p.  26)  shows  that  this  yield  is  less  than  that 
of  either  the  Pink  or  the  Large  Blue  Lupin,  and  only  just  above  that 
of  the  Succulent  Lupin.  At  the  same  time  the  leaves  of  the  Bitter 
Melilot  are  small  and  sparse,  and  the  stalk  is  very  woody;  by  far  the 
largest  part  of  the  weight,  therefore,  is  probably  fibrous  matter, 
unfitted  for  rapid  decomposition,  and  of  a  nature  to  keep  the  soil  per- 
haps too  loose  and  dry;  both  disadvantageous  features.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  hold  which  this  plant  has  acquired  upon  California  as  a 
weed,  the  readiness  with  which  it  can  be  obtained  and  with  which  it 
will  grow,  the  small  size  of  its  seeds,  and  the  fact  that  it  will  flourish 
and  develop  a  fine  mass  of  tubercles  in  alkali  soils,  are  points  which 
make  it  worthy  of  further  consideration.  As  in  California  it  makes 
but  little  growth  in  winter,  it  could  not  replace  the  lupins  for 
orchards  and  vineyards. 

SUMMARY. 

Thirteen  species  or  varieties  of  lupin  are  more  or  less  extensively 
cultivated  as  agricultural  crops  in  various  parts  of  Europe  and  north 
Africa;  of  these,  eleven  are  natives  of  Europe,  one  of  Chile  and  Peru, 
and  the  other  of  North  America.     Seven  of  the  most  important  species 


24 

have  been  the  subject  of  investigation  at  Berkeley  in  the  last  four 
years,  but  some  of  them  only  during  the  present  season. 

In  addition,  ten  annual  native  Calif ornian  species  have  been  under 
cultivation  in  the  Botanic  Garden  at  Berkeley  for  seven  years;  only 
two  of  these,  however,  Lupinus  affinis  and  L.  micranthus,  promise  to 
be  of  any  agricultural  value. 

Species  Recommended  for  Green- Manuring  in  California. — 
For  heavy,  strongly  calcareous  soils  in  middle  California,  such  as 
the  adobe  lands,  the  Pink  Lupin  (L.  pilosus  roseus)  and  the  Large 
Blue  Lupin  (L.  pilosus  caeruleus)  are  much  the  best  of  the  various 
species  tried  at  Berkeley.  Though  the  seeds  of  these  two  species 
are  few  to  a  pod,  large  and  heavy,  and  are  therefore  more  expensive 
than  those  of  any  of  the  other  species  tried,  an  equal  weight  of  seed 
will  produce  a  larger  amount  of  green  material  than  in  the  case  of  the 
others,  (compare  the  L.  angustifolius  diploleuca  and  L.  pilosus  cceruleus 
on  the  table  on  page  26,  where  the  weight  of  seed  sown  is  the  same, 
while  the  yield  of  the  latter  species  is  one-half  as  much  again ) .  For  the 
Chino  Valley,  Mr.  Mills  considers  the  Small  Blue  Lupin  (L.  angusti- 
folius caeruleus)  to  be  pre-eminently  the  best  species,  if  the  ravages  of 
root-rot  can  be  successfully  checked. 

For  the  light,  non-calcareous  soils,  the  Yellow  Lupin  (L.  luteus 
sativus)  would  undoubtedly  be  the  most  satisfactory,  as  it  is  so  much 
less  woody  than  any  of  the  other  species,  and  rots  so  much  more 
quickly  and  thoroughly. 

Cultivation. — The  success  or  failure  of  European  Lupins  depends 
almost  entirely  upon  sowing  sufficiently  early  to  catch  the  first  rains, 
and  at  a  time  when  the  soil  is  yet  warm  enough  to  stimulate  germina- 
tion and  prevent  the  rotting  of  the  seed.  If  sown  the  last  of  September 
the  Pink  and  Large  Blue  Lupins  are  ready  to  plough  under  by  the 
first  of  February,  and  the  Yellow  by  the  middle  of  March. 

In  Germany,  where  a  crop  of  rye  usually  succeeds  lupin,  it  has 
been  customary  to  allow  about  fourteen  days  to  elapse  between  plow- 
ing in  the  lupin,  and  sowing  the  new  crop,  in  order  to  allow  the 
former  to  rot.  Von  Wulffen  finds,  however,  that  this  is  not  necessary, 
and  in  France  it  is  customary  to  sow  immediately  after  plowing. 
Von  Wulffen  states  that  the  green  crop  can  be  plowed  under  either 
just  before,  during,  or  after  flowering. 

Lupins  as  well  as  other  leguminous  plants  do  not,  as  a  rule,  make 
tubercles  in  soil  freshly  manured  with  stable  manure;  the  manure  is 
injurious  to  the  tubercle-forming  bacteria.  This  does  not  prevent  the 
lupins  from  making  a  good  growth,  however;  indeed  they  will  often 
become  very  rank  in  manured  soil,  but  the  manure  tends  to  check  the 


25 

formation  of  seed.  We  can  readily  see,  therefore,  that  it  is  a  needless 
expense  to  manure  land  for  lupins,  or  to  sow  lupins  on  land  already 
manured,  as  the  presence  of  stable  manure  prevents  the  accomplish- 
ment of  the  chief  end  for  which  they  are  sown,  viz:  the  collection  of 
nitrogen  from  the  air  by  means  of  the  bacteria  on  the  roots. 

Soil-Inoculation. — Where  lupins  do  not  grow  wild  or  have  not 
previously  been  cultivated,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  inoculate  the 
soil,  in  order  to  secure  a  satisfactory  growth.  By  inoculation  we  mean 
in  this  case,  the  transfer  of  small  quantities  of  soil  in  which  lupins 
have  been  grown,  to  the  plot  in  which  it  is  wished  to  cultivate  them. 
The  necessity  for  this  inoculation  arises  from  the  circumstance  that 
the  bacteria  peculiar  to  lupins  do  not  make  tubercles  on  plants  of  any 
other  leguminous  genus,  and  therefore  are  not  found  in  soils  in  which 
lupins  have  not  grown. 

For  successful  inoculation,  Professor  Hilgard  recommends  the  use 
of  lupin  soil  taken  from  the  first  six  inches,  in  the  proportion  of 
about  a  half  ton  to  the  acre .  It  should  be  spread  lightly  over  the 
surface,  immediately  after  receipt,  and  then  be  harrowed  or  cultivated 
in  without  delay,  to  prevent  drying  out,  which  would  destroy  the  life 
of  the  bacteria. 

Soils. — In  a  communication  to  the  Landwirtschaftliche  Presse  of 
Berlin,  written  last  summer,  Professor  Hilgard  points  out  that  where 
lupins  will  suffer  from  the  presence  of  0.46%  of  calcium  carbonate  in 
sandy  soils,  as  shown  by  Heinrich,  they  will  tolerate  twice  as  much  in 
heavy  clay  soils. 

Rotting. — On  March  18th.  of  this  year  a  portion  of  the  plots  under 
observation  at  Berkeley  was  turned  under  to  determine  the  relative 
rotting  capacity  of  the  different  species.  On  April  22nd  the  rows  were 
opened,  with  the  following  results,  numbered  according  to  degrees  of 
decomposition : 

1.  Yellow  Lupin,  thoroughly  rotted. 

2.  Succulent  Lupin,  )      A  considerable  amount  ot  fibrous  matter  left,  but 

3.  Small  White  Lupin,      /less  than  in  any  of  the  succeeding  species. 

4.  Pink  Lupin,  \      Not  so  good  as  2  and  3,  but  better  than  Nos.  6 

5.  Large  Blue  Lupin,  j  and  7. 

6.  Small  Blue  Lupin,         \      Foliage  well  rotted,  but  stems  still  very  fibrous. 

7.  Narrow-leaved  Lupin,  J 

Method  of  Sowing.— Mr.  Mills  reports  from  Pomona :  "  The  drill 
system  seems  to  be  the  only  practical  method  of  putting  lupin  seed  in 
the  ground  where  irrigation  is  contemplated.  By  using  a  beet  drill 
the  seed  can  be  planted  with  little  expense,  fifteen  or  twenty  acres 
being  an  average  day's  work  in  an  orchard.  The  cultivator  used  with 
a  beet  outfit  can  be  used  both  for  preparing  the  ground  for  irrigation,  and 


26 


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29 

for  cultivation  afterward.  The  regular  duckfoot  attachment  that  goes 
with  the  machine,  if  bent  slightly  backward,  will  make  an  excellent 
furrower.  By  mixing  corn,  cracked  to  prevent  germination,  with  the 
lupin  seed,  the  latter  can  be  distributed  along  the  rows  at  any  distance 
desired.  The  lupin  seed  being  much  heavier  than  cracked  corn,  a 
mixture  of  half  and  half  by  weight,  would  require  a  comparatively 
small  outlay  for  corn,  to  make  the  seed  go  over  two  or  three  times  the 
area  that  it  would  if  planted  alone."  Mr.  Mills  recommends  light 
sowing,,  both  for  a  green  crop  and  for  seed,  as  close  planting  encour- 
ages the  spread  of  disease  and  prevents  the  "  setting"  of  seed  in  all  the 
pods,  which  is  not  counterbalanced  by  the  increase  in  number  of  plants. 

Use  of  Lupin  Seeds  for  Human  Food. — The  seeds  of  many — 
perhaps  all — species  of  lupin  contain  a  bitter  alkaloid  known  as 
Lupinin,  which  is  very  poisonous  to  human  beings.  This  bitter 
principle  can  be  removed,  however,  by;  boiling,  or  by  maceration  in 
salt  water  or  soda  solution;  in  this  state  the  seeds  were  used  for 
human  food  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  they 
are  still  so  used  in  India  (imported  from  the  Mediterranean)  and  in 
Corsica,  Piedmont,  Spain  and  Portugal. 

Use  for  Forage. — Although  the  foliage  and  seeds  of  lupins  are 
bitter,  they  are  grown  for  forage  purposes  in  several  parts  of  Europe. 
The  species  which  are  least  bitter  are  the  Yellow  and  Cruickshanks' 
lupin;  the  former  is  the  one  most  commonly  grown  for  this  purpose 
on  poor  sandy  soil  in  southern  Europe.  On  heavy  soils,  unsuited  to 
the  Yellow  lupin,  the  Small  Blue  lupin  ■  formerly  took  its  place;  this 
species  is  more  bitter  than  the  Yellow  lupin  and  was  found  to  be 
injurious  to  cattle,  it  has  therefore  been  abandoned  in  recent  years 
and  its  place  supplied  by  the  less  noxious  Small  White  lupin.  The 
Large  White  and  Egyptian  lupins  are  said  to  be  grown  for  forage  to 
a  small  extent  in  southern  Europe,  but  are  generally  considered  too 
bitter  for  this  purpose. 

The  foliage  of  the  Yellow  lupin  is  said  to  be  not  inferior  to  that 
of  clover,  and  at  the  same  time  more  bulky;  indeed  one  writer  states 
that,  "when  cut  just  at  the  end  of  flowering  it  is  the  most  highly 
nutritious  of  all  cdarse  fodders";  the  seeds,  also,  are  very  fattening 
when  used  as  an  addition  to  ordinary  fodder,  and  are  said  to  be  quite 
equal  to  oilcake.  In  Germany  the  average  yield  of  air-dry  forage  is 
from  3,640  to  4,550  lbs.  per  acre,  but  in  deep,  new,  sandy  soils  it  is 
said  to  yield  5,460,  7,880  and  even  9,100  lbs. 

Lupin  fodder  is  said  to  be  fed  either  green  or  in  the  form  of  hay, 
but  more  frequently  in  the  latter  condition  owing  to  its  bitterness 
when  green. 


30 

It  is  found  to  be  unsuitable  for  feeding  alone,  as  it  then  produces 
the  disease  called  lupinose.  Cornevin  states  that  lupinose  is  particu- 
larly severe  when  stock  are  fed  almost  exclusively  on  lupin  chaff,  only 
mild  when  hay,  oilcake  or  mangel-wurzel  form  a  certain  proportion  of 
the  ration,  and  it  is  given  at  intervals.  In  Germany  it  has  been  found 
that  sheep  will  be  affected  with  lupinose  if  supplied  daily,  without 
interruption,  with  500  grammes  (17  ounces)  of  the  plant,  including 
well-formed  pods  and  seeds,  or  300  grammes  (10  ounces)  of  empty 
pods,  or  even  with  only  100  grammes  (34  ounces)  of  seeds.  Drying 
does  not  affect  the  poisonousness  of  the  plant,  and  the  race,  sex  or  age 
of  the  animal  appears  to  make  no  difference  as  to  its  susceptibility. 
Sheep,  cattle,  horses,  goats,  dogs  and  tame  rabbits  are  subject  to  the 
disease. 

Lupinose  appears  in  two  forms,  acute  or  chronic,  and  is  accompanied 
by  lack  of  appetite,  difficult  respiration,  high  fever,  spasm  and  some- 
times vertigo,  resulting  in  death  in  the  first  case  in  four  to  six  days, 
in  the  second  in  fifteen  to  twenty  days.  These  symptoms,  it  will  be 
noted,  are  quite  similar  to  the  "loco"  of  western  pastures. 

The  Yellow  lupin  is  considered  much  more  poisonous  than  the 
Large  White,  and  the  Perennial  lupin  less  so  than  any  other  species. 
In  using  any  species  for  forage,  great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  use  too 
much  at  a  time,  especially  of  the  seeds,  and  not  to  use  a  lupin  ration 
without  intermission.  In  the  event  of  any  cases  of  lupinose  appearing, 
the  use  of  lupin  should  be  abandoned  entirely.  Lupin  should  never 
be  used  exclusively  in  a  ration. 

For  forage  purposes  the  lupins,  therefore,  do  not  appear  to  offer 
any  advantages  over  other  leguminous  crops,  except  as  winter  growers, 
and  they  are  certainly  more  or  less  dangerous  and  not  to  be  recom- 
mended indiscriminately. 


Note. 

Since  the  above  was  in  type,  a  letter  from  the  Foreman  of  the  Paso 
Robles  station  informs  us  that  the  Lupinus  affinis  (as  determined  by 
the  Department  of  Botany)  is  of  common  and  heavy  growth  in  the 
Willows  Creek  District,  twelve  miles  west  of  Paso  Robles.  The  plants 
were  found  to  have  an  average  height  of  three  or  four  feet,  and  twenty 
of  them  weighed  twenty-four  pounds. 


31 


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